Chang, Wonsuk.  “ What is Time in the Yijing?-A Comparative Study with Whiteheadian 'Epochal Theory of Time’.”  The Journal of Whitehead Studies 3 (2000): 111-136.

Abstract

The concept of time provides one of the most thought-provoking theses of debate when a comparative study is undertaken between process thoughts and Eastern philosophy. Steve Odin attempts the discussion in Process Metaphysics and Hua-yen Buddhism by arguing that, despite striking structural similarities between process metaphysics and Buddhism, the concept of time in view of the two distinct traditions introduces some significant discrepancies. At the core of the argument, Hua-yen Buddhism perceives time as symmetrical and cyclic, whereas process metaphysics views it as asymmetrical, advancing and cumulative.

Such contrary perceptions present metaphysical as well as social implications in understanding and analyzing the concept of time. The cyclic understanding of time only endures the future repetition of the past, hence it allows no freedom for making future choices. On the other hand, the asymmetrical understanding allows one to advance and create the future since it perceives that the future is not deterministic, even if the past may transmit into the present day events.

What, then, is time in the Confucian tradition? This paper attempts to analyze the Confucian concept of time revealed in the ancient Chinese classic of transformation, Yijing(周易), and aims to contribute to the ongoing intercultural debate on the concept of time by making relevant comparisons with A. N. Whitehead's Epochal Theory of Time, and identifying the underlying common features and discrepancies. The paper is organized as follows:

Charles Harthshorn values Whitehead's asymmetrical understanding of time as one of the most significant contributions to the history of Western philosophy. Whitehead's time theory, seen in his late masterpieces, suggests an atomic succession as a quantum concept of time. In the first section of this paper, I have ascertained the evolutionary process from the concept of continuity of time to the atomicity of time.

The second section reflects the Confucian view by introducing the key concepts of time in the classic of Yijing. The nuclear ideas in this Eastern classic are summarized by a few Chinese characters such as: byon(變), hwa(化), tong(通), byon-tong(變通). The underlying notions of these terms denote transformation and continuity. In my analysis, byon is interpreted as 'discontinuous change' and tong as 'continuity'. Thus the concept of byon-tong is deduced as an oxymoron which literally translates as discontinuous continuity. The concept of byon-tong is most frequently used in the Yijing. The context of this notion signifies flexible and adaptable efficiency under the changing circumstances.

Subsequent to the independent analyses of the above two distinct traditions, a link between the key concepts from the classic of Yijing and the Whiteheadian process thoughts has been made in an attempt to interpret and describe the Yijing concept of time in terms of 'atomic succession of time' or 'epochal time'. Furthermore, this comparative analysis explores the common features and discrepancies surrounding the concept of time from the perspectives of the two traditions. Several dimensions are used for the comparative purpose. Common features are categorized under the dimensions of basic structure of time, understanding of creative human nature and pattern of civilization. By contrast, motivation behind enquiry into time, time and ethics, context and methodology are the dimensions that expose some discrepancies.

The asymmetric understanding of time in Confucian tradition exhibits apparent structural distinctions from Hua-yen Buddhist cyclic under- standing. Consequently, the Confucian understanding of time strongly recognizes the importance of cumulative progression of human civilizations. Hence, it enforces the literate (or the leading groups in society) with sense of societal responsibility to maintain and create tradition and culture. This Confucian view seems much analogous to Whiteheadian philosophy that depicts man as a being that adventures into creative advancement of civilizations, given the human limitations on the grounds of cumulative understanding of time.

The motivation behind the work of the ancient classic, Yijing, is more pragmatic than that of the philosophy of Whitehead. The Yijing has been used as a practical reference applicable to daily reality, the applications of which include forecasting the future events, or referencing to flexible and adaptable efficiency under the changing circumstances in real life. Therefore, from the motivational perspective, it is comparable to the Whiteheadian enquiry into time which aims at establishing the theories of metaphysical principles and completing his speculative philosophy. From the pragmatic point of view, the issues of individual or societal ethics, applicable to daily reality, on the basis of the Whiteheadian theory of time remains to be further studied.  [Abstract from The Journal of Whitehead Studies]